When the offence is against state, rather than two individuals in conflict. Distinguishing criminal law from civil law is a matter of identifying the threats the individual poses to others, if there is a potential threat to society is can be classed as criminal law.

Without fear of a partial judge

You are, however, obligated to give your name and place of residence

Bonus issues are similar to rights issues, with the exemption of the price! Yes, bonus issues are FREE! Now you’re probably asking why in the world a company would just randomly hand out free shares to its holders. The answer is because companies may hope to decrease the market value in order to generate interest in potential shareholders from a cheaper price per share. Another one is because a higher volume of shares on the market may increase the market liquidity.

Estimating market decline with the bonus shares formula

BIREF is an ancronym for Bonus Issue Ratio Expressed as a Fraction. If the ratio was 1 for every 10 shares owned, then the ratio would be expressed as 10/11 because the value of 10 shares increases to 11.

A share float deals with the primary market of the stock exchange, and refers to shares that have just been introduced to the market by companies themselves. The majority of the stock exchange actually lies in the secondary market where people can sell, for lack of a better term, ‘second hand’ shares. Anytime a share leaves the original shareholders hands, it is considered a secondary share.

For example, I invest in a $1 share for Peter’s Plumbing. After a few days I find that my share has accumulated capital gain and is now worth $1.7 – I decide to sell it on the secondary market and make a profit of $0.7. Capital gain (value of a share) is dependent on a number of variables including the performance of a business and the economic demand for that industry.

A share is an investment in ownership of a company that is purchased via a stock market by someone who has faith in a business, and believes that the dividends received from the business under the share will be of financial benefit in the long run. Alternatively, if a share receives capital growth, investors may sell it on the secondary stock market for a higher price than they originally purchased it for. New businesses that may need a certain amount of capital to successfully start their business (lease, rent, equipment) can initiate a share through a stock exchange market after convincing a broker of their plan, hoping that their business idea generates enough interest for people to invest in it.

Think of it like this: A new business has just been permitted to create shares in the hope that they will be able to raise $100,000 to kickstart their company. A way they could do this is to put 100,000 $1 shares on the market and hope that their business plan has generated enough interest to convince people to invest in them. HOW MUCH a shareholder invests in a business is directly proportional to the percentage of the business they own, for example if I bought one of the aforementioned $1 shares, I would own 0.001% of the business.

I wonder what inconspicuous function this sensor… nevermind. The touch sensor is, as you might’ve guessed, a sensor that can be programmed to respond to touch, bumps, and release. When a touch sensor is touched, the button presses against a copper pad which is connected to a circuit board, the sensor then counts how many times it is pressed/bumped/released throughout a program. It’s numeric value can be used to write constants and variables, which can influence the rest of a program. In LABView’s Dataflow NXT-G, one can choose to combine a wait function with a touch sensor, so that a program halts until the sensor is pressed, or triggers another sequence. Sounds simple, right? But let’s think outside the box

Consider the example above. This is Lauren Valk’s ‘Snatcher’ robot built with an NXT. The program sequence goes as such – unlimited motion until ultrasonic finds object, adjust to object, arm picks up object, motors pull arm up and as a result, hits the touch sensor. The touch sensor needs to be hit in order to validate this action, if the sensor has not been hit the robot can realise that the object is

• Either too heavy

OR

• Something is wrong with the arm

EOPD stands for Electro Optical Proximity Detector, and is a more accurate ‘detecting’ alternative to the Ultrasonic Sensor. It was a sensor invented by Dataport Systems and their subsidiary; HiTechnic. It is compatible with the LEGO’s NXT line of robotic software. Unlike the Ultrasonic sensor, it does not use sound-echoing to gain insight of the environment. Instead, the EOPD generates an internal light source to send out electronic signals to the environment. It is based off the EOS sensor. Because the EOPD is not relying on external lighting, it is able to work in poorly-lit conditions.

A light sensor, evidently, detects the intensity and change of light in a closed environment. It can be programmed to recognise a certain intensity/degree of light, and then react accordingly. It is commonly used in barcode technology, where it shines light on the barcode which counteracts the dark strip pattern, hence outlining the barcode shape and recognising the corresponding item. Despite it’s apparent simplicity, the light sensor has also been used in much more advanced applications. For example, in 2010, Dave Parker built a functional segway replica using a light sensor to replace the traditional gyroscopic method. In his program, you start by attempting to balance the segway 90 degrees, after four consecutive beeps the program begins (under the assumption you’ve balanced it) with the light sensor taking an initial reading and storing it under a variable titled ‘balance’. From there the motors communicate with the light sensor in attempt to regain balance or the ‘neutral’ position. A really high light sensor reading means it has fallen back, and a really low sensor reading meaning that it has fallen forward too much.

Be an engineering genius: What problems may you encounter using Dave Parker’s segway concept?

Without delving into too much body science, sensors ‘sense’ in a very different way to humans, in the sense (woeful pun) that they do not rely on stimuli or neurons passing information. Rather, they gain information through reading and measuring quantitative values from the environment. And of course, as we all know, in order to get a value we must feed the environment something. For example, take one of the most simple yet effective sensors – The Ultrasonic sensor – this sensor is designed to imitate the function of sight by sending out sound waves (measured in hertz) to the environment. The sensor will know how far away it is from the object dependent on the hertz value that is echoed back to it. Simple yet ingenius!

This is essentially the same concept that is used for sonar, which is a vital function of any submarine that wants to successfully navigate itself through the ocean and know where their enemies lie.